The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation is generally the default legal citation manual. It is compiled by the editors of the Columbia Law Review, the Harvard Law Review, the University of Pennsylvania Law Review, and The Yale Law Journal and began in 1926. It is now in its 22nd edition. Other general legal citation manuals include ALWD, and The Redbook. Additionally, each jurisdiction and court may have its own citation rules. Ohio, for example, has its own writing manual.

Bluebook Organization

• Quick Reference:  Law Review Footnotes
• Blue Pages (these are practitioner oriented)
• Blue Pages Tables (these cover court documents and refer to jurisdiction -specific rules and style guides)
• General Rules (R. 1 – 9)
• Specific Source Rules (R. 10-23)
• Tables (T. 1-16)
• Index
• Quick Reference: Court Documents and Legal Memoranda

Changes from the 21st Edition

• New signal – “contrast” – see R. 1.2 and B1.2
• New parenthetical (citation modified) – See B5.3
• Updated B22 and B23
• Updated BT2
• Codification information can now be omitted depending on context – R. 12.4(f)
• New rule for state administrative material – R. 14.4
• New information on citing pen names – R. 15.1(d)
• More special citation forms – R. 15.8
  • Major changes to R. 18:
  • Expansion of what is considered an official version of a government produced source – R. 18.2(a)(iii)
  • Explanation of what “share the characteristics of a printed source” means – R. 18.2(b)(ii)
  • Requirement now that all online content cited or generated by authors be stored in a permanent setting R. 18.2(d) and indicate dates archived 18.2.2(c)
  • New rule for citing AI – R. 18.3,
  • New rule for citing material in electronic storage – R. 18.5
  • Changes to citing films, videos, tv (previously R. 18.6) – R. 18.7
  • Changes to audio media (now includes streaming) (previously R. 18.7) – R. 18.8
  • Changes and expansion to rule for electronic images, photographs, art (previously R. 18.8) – R. 18.9
  • New rule for social media – R. 18.10
  • New rule for hardware and software – R. 18.11
• Revised R. 20.2.4 to include languages that do not use the Roman alphabet
• New R. 22 for Tribal Nations
• New R. 23 for physical archival sources Updated tables
  • T. 1.2 – state
  • T. 2 – foreign jurisdictions revised with 3 new foreign jurisdictions added
  • T. 6 – includes medical journals
  • T. 10 – geographical terms
  • New T. 1.5 for Tribal Nations

A Word About Typeface

The Bluepages B1 state that its examples use underscoring appropriate text but that italics may be substituted as long as you are consistent.The Bluepages B2 states that court documents and legal memoranda only use two typefaces: (1) ordinary type and (2) italics or underscoring. B3 also contains a useful table of key typeface differences between academic and practitioner citation typeface.

Bluebook

Rule 16.7.6 of The Bluebook (22nd ed. 2025) covers how to cite ALRs. 

Elements

The citation should contain:

• Author
• the word "Annotation"
• Title (italicized or underlined)
• ALR volume
• ALR series
• Page number or article number (newer ALRs use articles). If pinpoint citing use the page number or the section for newer ALRs.
• Copyright date of volume and supplement if appropriate

Examples

William B. Johnson, Annotation, Use of Plea Bargain or Grant of Immunity as Improper Vouching for Credibility of Witness in Federal Cases, 76 A.L.R. Fed. 409 (1986 & Supp. 2025).

Linda Sharp, Annotation, Definition of "Sex" Under Title VII of Civil Rights Act, 42 U.S.C.A. §§ 2000e et seq., Concerning Discrimination on Basis of Sexual Orientation, Gender Conformance, or Transgender Status—Post-Bostock, 67 A.L.R. Fed. 3d Art. 14, § 10 (2022).

ALWD

Rule 22.5 of The ALWD Citation Manual (7th ed.) covers the citation of ALRs.

Elements

The citation should contain:

• Author
• the word "Annotation"
• Title (italicized or underlined)
• ALR volume
• ALR series -- See Chart 22.2 for abbreviations
• Page number or article number (newer ALRs use articles). If pinpoint citing use the page number or the section for newer ALRs.
• Copyright date of volume and supplement if appropriate
  • If you are using an ALR on Westlaw, rather than the copyright date provide the database and the month, day, and year you accessed it.

Examples

William B. Johnson, Annotation, Use of Plea Bargain or Grant of Immunity as Improper Vouching for Credibility of Witness in Federal Cases, 76 A.L.R. Fed. 409 (1986 & Supp. 2025).

Linda Sharp, Annotation, Definition of "Sex" Under Title VII of Civil Rights Act, 42 U.S.C.A. §§ 2000e et seq., Concerning Discrimination on Basis of Sexual Orientation, Gender Conformance, or Transgender Status—Post-Bostock, 67 A.L.R. Fed. 3d Art. 14, § 10 (2022).

Linda Sharp, Annotation, Definition of "Sex" Under Title VII of Civil Rights Act, 42 U.S.C.A. §§ 2000e et seq., Concerning Discrimination on Basis of Sexual Orientation, Gender Conformance, or Transgender Status—Post-Bostock, 67 A.L.R. Fed. 3d Art. 14, § 10 (Westlaw through June 18, 2025).

Bluebook

Rule 15.8 of The Bluebook (22nd ed. 2025) governs the citation of dictionaries. You may also find it helpful to look at B15.1.

Elements

The citation should include the following:

• The word or title of entry (italicized or underlined)
• Title of dictionary (italicized or underlined)
• Edition
• Year

Online Dictionaries

Rule 15.9 of The Bluebook (22nd ed. 2025) covers databases and online secondary sources. It also refers to R. 18.2. Follow the elements above plus add a citation to the database or source.

Examples: 

Replevin, Black's Law Dictionary (10th ed. 2014).

Replevin, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/replevin [https://perma.cc/ZK5T-FHZA] (last visited June 18, 2025).

Note that the underscore in the above examples does not indicate a link but is an example of Bluebook form.

Short Form

Use Id. or Supra. -- See R. 15.10 and R. 4

ALWD

Rule 22.1 of The ALWD Citation Manual (7th ed.) covers the citation of Dictionaries.

Elements

• The word or title of entry (italicized or underlined)
• Title of dictionary (italicized or underlined)
• Edition
• Year

Example: 

Replevin, Black's Law Dictionary (10th ed. 2014).

Bluebook

Rule 15.8 and B15.1 of The Bluebook (22d ed. 2020) covers the citation of encyclopedias. 

Elements

The citation should include the following:

• Volume
• Encyclopedia abbreviation
• Article title (underlined or italicized)
• Section
• Copyright date of the volume (in the parenthetical)

Elements for an Encyclopedia on Lexis or Westlaw

The citation follows the print except it should also include a citation to the database and when the database was last updated (or copyright if that is the only date supplied).

Examples

88 C.J.S. Trial § 192 (1955).

88 C.J.S. Trial § 192, Westlaw (database updated May 2025).

17 Am. Jur. 2d Contracts § 74 (1964).

17 Am. Jur. 2d Contracts § 74, Lexis (database updated 2025).

14 Ohio Jur. 3d Civil Rights § 82 (2006).

Short Form

Use Id. or Supra. -- See R. 15.10 and R. 4

ALWD

Rule 22.3 of The ALWD Citation Manual (7th ed.) covers the citation of legal encyclopedias.

Elements

The citation should include the following:

• Volume
• Encyclopedia Abbreviation (see Chart 22.1)
• Title or Topic (italicize or underline)
• Section
• Year (in the parenthetical)
  • When citing an encyclopedic entry in a commercial database, rather than the year in the parenthetical, add the name of the database provider and provide the date through which the database is current.

Examples

88 C.J.S. Trial § 192 (1955).

88 C.J.S. Trial § 192, Westlaw (database updated May 2025).

17 Am. Jur. 2d Contracts § 74 (1964).

17 Am. Jur. 2d Contracts § 74, Lexis (database updated 2025).

14 Ohio Jur. 3d Civil Rights § 82 (2006).

Short Forms

Rule 22.3 of the ALWD Citation Manual (7th ed.) covers short forms for encyclopedias.

Use Id. or when Id. is not appropriate use the citation above but leave out the publication parenthetical.

Bluebook

Rule 16 & B16 of The Bluebook (22nd ed. 2025) covers the citation of law reviews and other legal periodicals. 

Consecutively paginated law reviews and journals (R. 16.4, B16.1.1)

For articles appearing in legal periodicals that keep page numbering throughout the same volume and do not restart page numbering with each new issue..

Elements

The citation should include the following:

• Author's name
• If the article is written by a student author, the designation of the piece such as note, comment, book review, recent case, etc. (see R. 16.7.1 & B16.1.3)
• Title of the article (in italics or underlined)
• Volume number (if no volume, use the year as the volume and don't put the year at the end)
• Abbreviation of journal name (See T.10 and T.13)
• The beginning page number (if pinpoint citing, include the beginning page number and the pinpoint cite)
• Year (don't use issues, months, seasons etc.)

Databases & Online Sources

Follow R. 16 but add a citation to the database. Use a database identifier if one is available. See R. 16.8.

Example:

Charles A. Reich, The New Property, 73 Yale L.J. 733, 737-38 (1964).

Delaney Cook, Student Note and Comment, When Courts Collide: How Statutory Interpretation Divides the Fifth and Eighth Circuits on Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act, 93 U. Cin. L. Rev. 799 (2025).

Short Form:

Use Id. or Supra -- See R. 16.9

ALWD

Rule 21 of The ALWD Citation Manual (7th ed.) covers the citation of periodicals.

Consecutively paginated law reviews and journals

Elements

The citation should include the following:

• Author
• Designation of the work (case note, note, etc.)
• Title (italicized or underlined)
• Volume (if no volume put the year and don't repeat the year at the end)
• Periodical Abbreviation (see Appendix 5)
• Page (if pinpoint citing, include the beginning page number and the pinpoint cite)
• Year (don't use issues, months, seasons etc.)

Example

Charles A. Reich, The New Property, 73 Yale L.J. 733, 737-38 (1964).

Delaney Cook, Student Note and Comment, When Courts Collide: How Statutory Interpretation Divides the Fifth and Eighth Circuits on Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act, 93 U. Cin. L. Rev. 799 (2025).

Bluebook

Rule 16 & B16 of The Bluebook (22nd ed. 2025) covers the citation of law reviews and other legal periodicals. 

Nonconsecutively paginated periodicals (R. 16.5 & B16.1.2)

For articles appearing in legal periodicals that restart their page numbering with each new issue.

Elements

The citation should include the following:

• Author
• Title of the article (in italics or underlined)
• Abbreviation of journal name (see T. 6,10 & 13)
• Date as it appears on the cover (if no date of issue is available, provide the issue number and indicate the volume number before the title)
• the word "at"
• The beginning page number (if pinpoint citing, include the beginning page number and the pinpoint cite)

Newspapers (R. 16.6 & B16.1.4)

 The citation format for newspapers and newsletters is largely the same as for nonconsecutively paginated periodicals. See your Bluebook for specific exceptions involving special designations, place of publication etc.

Databases & Online Sources (R. 16.6, 16.8)

Follow R. 16 and include a citation to the database or URL. If there is a specific database identifier, provide it. Online newspapers may be used instead of print publications but authors and cite checkers should be aware of paywalls that may impede readers from accessing the source.

Examples

Susan A. Berson, Starting Up: If You're Hanging a Shingle in 2011, A.B.A. J., Jan. 2011, at 40.

Catie Edmondson et al., Senate G.O.P. Unveils Domestic Policy Package With Big Medicaid Cuts, N.Y. Times, June 17, 2025, at A13.

Kaycee Sloan, What Pardon Means for Sittenfield, Cin. Enquirer, May 30, 2025, at A9, 2025 WLNR 13205076.

Short Forms

Use Id. or Supra.-- See R. 16.9

ALWD

Rule 21 of The ALWD Citation Manual (7th ed.) covers the citation of periodicals.

Elements

The citation should include the following:

• Author
• Title of the article (in italics or underlined)
• Abbreviation of journal name (see Appendix 5)
• Date as it appears on the cover (if no date of issue is available, provide the issue number and indicate the volume number before the title). Use abbreviations from Appendix 3.
• the word "at"
• The beginning page number (if pinpoint citing, include the beginning page number and the pinpoint cite)

Newspapers

Elements

• Author
• Title
• Volume (if exists)
• Publication Title (abbreviate per Appendices 3 & 5)
• Include place of publication in a parenthetical if the place is not evident from the publication name
• Date (abbreviate per Appendix 3) -- skip this if it is an online newspaper
• Initial page (include the section if sections exist).
• If it is an online newspaper, add a parenthetical with the date and time of posting and then follow with the URL

Examples

Susan A. Berson, Starting Up: If You're Hanging a Shingle in 2011, 97 A.B.A. J., Jan. 2011, at 40.

Catie Edmondson et al., Senate G.O.P. Unveils Domestic Policy Package With Big Medicaid Cuts, N.Y. Times, June 17, 2025, at A13.

Bluebook

Rule 15 of The Bluebook (22nd ed. 2025) covers citing treatises.Shorter works within collections fall within this rule.

Elements

The citation should include the following:

• Individual work author
• Individual work title (italicized or underscored)
• the word "in" (italicized or underscored)
• Volume number of the collection if applicable
• Title of the collection (italicized or underscored)
• Page on which the individual work begins and any pinpoint pages
• Editors, translators, editions in the parenthetical
• Year

Examples

Michael Solimine, Party Patronage in Oxford Handbook of American Election Law 503-21 (Eugene Mazo, ed., 2024).

Short Form

Use Id. for the shorter individual work if it was cited in the immediately preceding citation. Do not use id. for the larger work if the shorter individual work is different. Use supra. See R. 15.10.1

Rule 11 & B11 of The Bluebook (22nd ed. 2025) covers the citation of Constitutions.

Elements

The citation should include the following:

• U.S. or the abbreviated name of the state (see T. 10)
• Const.
• Abbreviate any subdivisions per Table 16

Constitutions in Online Databases

Follow the above rules but add a parenthetical identifying the publisher (or editor or compiler), database and its currency.

Examples

U.S. Const. amend. XIII, § 1.

Ohio Const. art. I.

Ohio Const. art. 1 (LexisNexis, Lexis+ current through 2022 general election).

Short Form

Id.

ALWD

R. 13 of The ALWD Citation Manual (7th ed.) covers the citation of Constitutions.

Elements

The citation should include the following:

• U.S. or the abbreviated name of the state (see Appendix 3(b))
• Const.
• Abbreviate any subdivisions per Appendix 3(c). See also R. 4 (numbers) & 6 (subdivisions)

Constitutions in Online Databases

Follow the above rules but add a parenthetical identifying the database and its currency.

Examples

U.S. Const. amend. XIII, § 1.

Ohio Const. art. I.

Ohio Const. art. 1 (Lexis+ current through 2022 general election).

Short Form

Id.

Rule 12 of The Bluebook (22d ed. 2025) covers the citation of statutes. B 12 and T.1 should also be consulted. Cite the official federal code. Citation to official state codes is preferred but not required.

Elements

• Name and original section number as it appears in the session laws (only if the statute is commonly cited that way)
  • Omit the word "The" as the 1st word
  • Include the year if it is in the official title
  • Official or popular names can be used
• Title, Chapter, or Volume (see  T. 1, 1.3) 
  • If each title, chapter or volume contains differently numbered sections or paragraphs than you can omit the volume, chapter, or title
  • If a subject matter rather than title, volume, or chapter are used, use the subject matter instead (see T. 1.3)
• Code (cite to the official federal code, official state code if possible)
• Section
• Publisher, editor or compiler (unless the code is published by or under the supervision of government officials)
• Year (optional for federal codes) (on spine or title page if available, otherwise year on title page, and if not that, the copyright year)
• Supplements (see Rule 3.1 to cite any material appearing in supplements)

Examples:

42 U.S.C.§ 1983.

8 U.S.C. §§ 1187-89.

Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 3503.06 (West 2007).

Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 3503.06 (LexisNexis 2009).

Citing to Online Codes -- Rule 12.5 and 18.3:

If citing to a statute that is available on a commercial online service such as Lexis or Westlaw, follow the above rules but also give the name of the publisher, editor or compiler; the name of the database; and the currency of code.

Examples:

Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 3503.06 (Page's, Lexis+ through File 11 of the 136th General Assembly (2025-2026)).

Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 3503.06 (Baldwin's, Westlaw Precision through through File 11 of the 136th General Assembly (2025-2026) and 2025 Statewide Issue 2 (May election)(2024 H.J.R. No. 8)).

ALWD

Rule 14 of The ALWD Citation Manual (7th ed.) covers the citations to codes.

Elements

A citation to the Federal statutes should include the following:

• Name and original section number as it appears in the session laws (only if the statute is commonly cited that way)
  • Omit the word "The" as the 1st word
  • Include the year if it is in the official title
  • Official or popular names can be used
• Title number
• Code Abbreviation (cite to official code where possible - see Appendix 1)
• Section
• Publisher and Date (if unofficial)

Citations to State codes will vary. Consult Appendix 1(B) and analogize to the federal code citation format.

Online Codes

• Use regular citation form but add the name of the database provider and currency information

Examples

42 U.S.C.§ 1983.

8 U.S.C. §§ 1187-89.

Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 3503.06 (West 2007).

Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 3503.06 (LexisNexis 2009).

Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 3503.06 (Lexis+ through File 11 of the 136th General Assembly (2025-2026)).

Bluebook

Rule 10.8.1 of The Bluebook (22nd ed. 2025) governs the citation of pending and unreported cases. B. 10 and Tables 1, 6, 7, and 10 should also be consulted. 

The citation should include the following:

Elements

• Case Name - first listed parties on each side (for more detail on case names see above for reported cases)
• Docket / Case number - as it appears on court documents or follow local court rules Appendix 2
• Database identifier - a unique codes or number that identifies the case
• Court name - see T.1, T.7, T.10 for abbreviations
• Full date of the most recent disposition of the case
• If the name of the database is not clear from the database identifier, include it parenthetically at the end of the citation

Examples

• Atlas Data Priv. Corp. v. Thomson Reuters Corp., No. CV 24-4269, 2025 WL 1261221, at *3 (D.N.J. May 1, 2025).
• Atlas Data Priv. Corp. v. Thomson Reuters Corp.,No. 24-4269, 2025 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 83452 (D.N.J. May 1, 2025).

ALWD

Elements

• Case Name - first listed parties on each side (for more detail on case names see above for reported cases)
• No.
• Docket / Case number - as it appears on court documents
  • You may omit initial digits preceding a colon and a judge's initials at the end of the docket number.
  • Do not omit other letters or numbers in the docket number.
• Database identifier - a unique codes or number that identifies the case
• Court name - see T.1, T.7, T.10 for abbreviations
• Full date of the most recent disposition of the case
• If the name of the database is not clear from the database identifier, include it parenthetically at the end of the citation

Examples

• Atlas Data Priv. Corp. v. Thomson Reuters Corp., No. CV 24-4269, 2025 WL 1261221, at *3 (D.N.J. May 1, 2025).
• Atlas Data Priv. Corp. v. Thomson Reuters Corp.,No. 24-4269, 2025 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 83452 (D.N.J. May 1, 2025).

ALWD

Rule 18 of the ALWD Citation Manual (7th ed.) covers the citation of administrative materials.

Federal

Elements for Codified Rules 

• Give the name of the rule/regulation if commonly cited that way or it would help the reader.
• Title of CFR
• Code of Federal Regulations abbreviation
• Section (or part)
• Year (cite the most recent edition unless citing a historical version)

Example for Codified Rules

8 C.F.R. § 238.1 (2025).

8 C.F.R. pt.103 (2025).

Elements for Proposed Rules, Notices, or Comments

• Give the name of the rule/regulation only if commonly cited that way
• Volume of Federal Register
• Federal Register abbreviation
• page number (if pinpoint citing give the page the rule/notice/comment begins on and the pinpoint page)
• Date (full date should be used)
• Parenthetical if needed (usually a to be codified parenthetical)

Example for a Proposed Rule

Defining and Delimiting the Exemptions for Executive, Administrative, Professional, Outside Sales and Computer Employee, 80 Fed. Reg. 38516 (proposed July 6, 2015) (to be codified at 29 C.F.R. pt. 541).

Adjudications

Rule 18.5 is specific regarding administrative adjudications and arbitrations.  Generally, they should conform to Rule 12 for cases but apply Rule 18.5 exceptions.

Example

Sisko, 25 M.S.P.R. 258 (1984).

The Bluebook (22nd ed. 2025) requires citation to printed material (provided it is available), unless there is an authenticated, official, or exact digital copy of the printed sources.  See R. 18.2. 

• Authenticated:  those sources using encryption based authentication such as digital signatures and public key infrastructure (preferred by The Bluebook - look for certificates, seals,or logos)
• Official:  materials that a jurisdiction has designated as "official"
• Exact Copy:  unaltered copy of the printed source in a format that preserves pagination and other format attributes (most likely PDF)

Example:  The Ohio Supreme Court has designated the Supreme Court website as the Ohio Official Reports for opinions of the courts of appeals and the Court of Claims. See Ohio Rep. Op. R. 3.2, http://www.supremecourt.ohio.gov/LegalResources/rules/reporting/Report.pdf.  These opinions are in PDF format and bear a watermark.

If there is no print format or if the print format is obscure and is, for all practical purposes unavailable, cite to the most stable Internet source available.

Elements

• Author (if available)
• Titles
  • Use title bar or page-identifying heading
  • Include main page title and abbreviate it per T. 10 & 13 (use large & small cap font)
  • If the source is published under a blog or other subdivision with consistent content and presence on the larger site, also include the name of the subdivision.
• Date
  • Use dates that refer clearly to the material cited (for blogs, include time-date stamp)
  • Otherwise use last updated or last modified
  • Or last visited
• URL (but not if it is too long or complicated -- use the root URL if that is the case and append a parenthetical)
• R. 18.2.1(d) requires all online content cited or generated by authors to be captured and stored in a permanent setting.
  • When using an archival tool like perma cc, put the archive URL in brackets at the end of the citation.

Examples

Eric Goldman, When Should Search Engines Ignore Court Orders To Remove Search Results?,Tech. & Marketing L. Blog (Sept. 4, 2013), http://blog.ericgoldman.org/archives/2013/09/when_should_sea.htm [https://perma.cc/U2AN-2TXE].

Ryan Thoreson, Trump Administration Moves to Reject Transgender Identity Rights, Hum. Rts. Watch: Dispatches (Jan. 23, 2025 5:00AM EST), https://www.hrw.org/news/2025/01/23/trump-administration-moves-reject-transgender-identity-rights [https://perma.cc/Q22L-CSPL].

Bill Ong Hing, Understanding SB1070 from the Lens of Institutionalized Racism and Civil Rights, Legal Services N. Cal.: Race Equity Project, http://www.equity.lsnc.net/understanding-sb1070-from-the-lens-of-institutionalized-racism-and-civil-rights (last visited Sept. 9, 2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20130215000000*/http://www.equity.lsnc.net/understanding-sb1070-from-the-lens-of-institutionalized-racism-and-civil-rights].

A parallel citation to an Internet source may be provided if it substantially improves access to the source.  Follow the regular rules for citing the source and then add the parallel Internet citation.

Elements of Citation

• Original print citation
• Introduce the parallel citation with available at
• URL

Examples:

Commission on Women in the Profession, American Bar Association, From Visible Invisibility to Visibly Successful: Success Strategies for Law Firms and Women of Color in Law Firms (2008), available at http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/migrated/women/woc/VisiblySuccessful.authcheckdam.pdf.

D. Andrew Austin & Mindy R. Levit, Cong. Research Serv., The Debt Limit: History and Recent Increases (Aug. 27, 2013), available at http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/213995.pdf.

Haw. Rev. Stat. § 201-1 (date), available at http://www.capitol.hawaii.gov/hrscurrent/Vol04_Ch0201-0257/HRS0201/HRS_0201-0001.htm.

Traton News, L.L.C. v. Traton Corp., No. 12-4139 (6th Cir. June 11, 2013), available at http://federal-circuits.vlex.com/vid/traton-news-llc-v-corp-440553998.

• Id., per R. 4.1
• Supra per R. 4.2

Rule 18.4 of The Bluebook (22nd ed. 2025) covers the commercial databases such as Lexis, Westlaw, and Bloomberg Law. The Bluebook still requires the use and citation of printed sources where available (see R. 18.2). Commercial databases should be cited in preference to other, general Internet resources. For citation format, see the following rules:

• Cases -- R. 10.8.1
• Constitutions -- R. 11
• Statutes -- R. 12.5
• Legislative Materials -- R. 13.7
• Regulations -- R.14.5
• Books, Reports, etc. -- R. 15.9
• Periodicals -- R. 16.8

Codes should be cited according to R. 12.3, but if citing to an electronic database, additional information is required.

Elements of Citation

• Title (for Federal)
• Abbreviated name of the code per T. 1
• Subject (where applicable)
• Title, Chapter, Volume (where applicable)
• Section and/or paragraph
• Publisher
• Database
• Currency of the database (as opposed to year of the code)

Examples:

Cal. Bus. & Prof. § 1670.2 (West, Westlaw through Ch. 202 of 2013 Reg.Sess. and all 2013-2014 1st Ex.Sess. laws).

Cal. Bus. & Prof. § 1670.2 (Deering, Lexis through Ch. 129 of  2013 Reg. Sess.).

Secondary sources should be cited according to the rules for that source, but add a parallel cite to an electronic database. Include the database identifer if it is available.

Example:

Nicole Perlroth et al., N.S.A. Able To Foil Basic Safeguards Of Privacy On Web,  N.Y. Times, Sept. 6, 2013, at A1, available at 2013 WLNR 22171198.

According to Rule 18.3.1, an "unreported" case may be cited to an electronic database. 

Elements of Citation

• Case name (see R. 10)
• Docket number
• Database identifier (if unavailable, add information on the specific collection in a parenthetical)
• Page or paragraph numbers
• Court name (see R. 6, R. 10, T. 7, T. 10)
• Full date

Examples:

Beaven v. U.S. Dep't of Justice, No. 03-84-JBC, 2007 WL 1032301, at *3 (E.D. Ky. Mar. 30, 2007).

Beaven v. U.S. Dep't of Justice, No. 03-84-JBC, 2007 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 24459, at *3 (E.D. Ky. Mar. 30, 2007).

Beaven v. Ridley-Turner, No. 3:04-CV-160 RM (N.D. Ind. Apr. 18. 2005) (CaseMaker, U.S. District Court Case Law).

Use the database identifier in the short form.

Example:

Beaven, 2007 WL 1032301, at *3.

Beaven, 2007 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 24459, at *3.

Rule 1.2 of The Bluebook (21st ed. 2020) covers the use of signals.  Signals are used in front of citations to alert the reader as to how that citation is being used.  They can be quite confusing!

Do not use a signal with a citation when you have directly borrowed someone else’s words or have paraphrased her words or ideas.

Signals can also be used as verbs in text.

• E.g., – string cites, multiple examples but not an exhaustive list.  Here are a few examples to illustrate /support my statement.  You can combine this with other signals such as See.

•  Accord – 2 or more in agreement. The signal accord comes after another citation that supports the proposition.  The first citation here directly supports the statement and the accord signal and second citation indicates another source that supports it.   A common use of this signal is to show that two different jurisdictions agree.

•  See – clearly supports (obviously follows but not directly stated).  Slightly less direct support than no signal.

•  See also – additional material supporting the proposition.  Parenthetical explanation is encouraged.

• Cf. – compare (different but analogous – it doesn’t exactly support your statement but it is close).  Parenthetical explanation encouraged.

•  Compare -- To actually compare two authorities directly.  You must use “with,” and another citation  with this signal.  Parenthetical explanation encouraged.

• Contra –  directly states the contrary.  The opposite of using no signal at all

• But See – authority supports proposition contrary to main proposition

•  But cf. – analogous to the contrary of the main proposition.  Parenthetical strongly encouraged.

See generally – Background.  Parenthetical explanation encouraged.

Additional Law Library Research Guides & Video Tutorials

Susan M. Boland
Associate Director
Robert S. Marx Law Library
Office 110H
susan.boland@uc.edu
Contact me on Teams
v: (513) 556-4407

Susan Boland is the Interim Director for the University of Cincinnati Robert. S. Marx Law Library. She teaches legal research and offers reference and research support services to all law library users. Prior to joining the law library faculty, she was the Head of Information Services for the Ruth Lilly Law Library at the Robert H. McKinney School of Law and the Research & Instructional Services librarian at Northern Illinois University College of Law. She has also held positions at a public library and community college library and served as a judicial clerk for the Iowa District Court for the Fifth Judicial District.  She is a member of various professional associations both regionally and nationally. She has served as Chair of the Computing Services Special Interest Section of the American Association of Law Libraries and President of the Mid-America Association of Law Libraries. She is currently Vice-President of the American Association of Law Libraries Animal Law Caucus. She has presented at regional and national conferences, as well as at continuing legal education programs. Her publications include annotated bibliographies on the death penalty and election law, as well as articles on legal research, technology, and teaching.